IN MEMORY
OF
1917-2004
David T. Shannon
The Millbrook
Society was saddened to learn of the passing of Miss Margaret Merriman, October
last. Miss Merriman was a longtime fixture in Hatboro’s musical community and a
member of Millbrook for 20 years. For those members not acquainted with
Margaret, we feel bound to share with you something of this remarkable woman.
Miss Merriman
was born June 2nd, 1917 in Philadelphia.
Her father was a native of St. Lawrence, Canton
New York; Mr. Leslie W. Merriman
was a Civil Engineer by trade. Margaret’s mother was from Germantown and passed away when she was very
young. Her father and grandmother, Mrs. Margaret Turkington, raised her. The
family moved to Hatboro when she was 12 years old, in 1929.
After
graduating from Hatboro High School, she went on to graduate from Temple University
with a degree in music and composition. Margaret was proud to lay claim to
being a student of Olga Samiroff, a concert pianist and wife of Leopold
Stokowski. Stokowski was then conductor of the famed Philadelphia Orchestra and
remained her favorite conductor her whole life. Miss Merriman and her
relationship with the Stokowskis must have been a warm one as she
affectionately referred to Leopold as Stokie when speaking of him. Margaret
also was the recipient of medals, won in competition, from the Philadelphia
Orchestra, based on her musical notebooks and drawings of the famous Children’s
Concerts that were begun by Stokowski. Two of her most favored 20th century
composers were Aaron Copeland and Leonard Bernstein.
Margaret
bought the house she and her family moved into when they came to Hatboro. She
entered into her life-long career as a piano teacher in Hatboro in 1937. At the
time, she was but a young woman of 20, yet a woman of exceptional talent.
Margaret held her early recitals in the Hatboro Baptist
Church and went on to
teach young and old her entire life; almost to the very end. She never
advertised her services, depending on word of mouth and her reputation to reach
potential students. Her students did come! From far and wide, this very
special, talented woman drew those eager, and not so eager, to learn to her
studio. During her 67 years of instructing piano, she had over 2,000 students.
Of these, the one who went on to greater heights was Susanne Playford. She went
on to an operatic career, then into teaching. She infused in her students a
strict work ethic that carries forward to another generation, while at the same
time, she was forgiving of their shortcomings. Millbrook knows of at least 10
of its membership who studied under her.
But, Margaret
was more than just a “Piano Teacher”. She was a historian and world traveler.
Her love of photography lead her to capture Hatboro’s people and places. She
took hundreds of pictures that show Hatboro as it was, and of the changes that
were taking place around her. Because of this, many places, buildings, things,
and people that would be lost to memory, are not. When returning from travels
abroad, she was always eager to share her experiences and photos with her
friends. She shared her memories with
not just Millbrook, but with many newcomers to Hatboro, which helped many
acclimate to the town that they then adopted as their own. Margaret showed a
deep commitment to not just her town, but to her neighbors and many friends.
Their welfare was hers.
Music is the great common
denominator of all people, and music was Margaret Merriman’s life. Her love of
music has brought together not only her neighbors, but also her friends and
students; and her town. We are all the less in our loss. Goodbye and God’s
grace be with you good friend.
Amanda
Rockwood
The Civil War
was a time of conflict and hardship in both the North and South. It was
literally brother against brother, in this battle over States Rights and
Slavery. During the early part of the conflict, blacks were not allowed to
fight for the Union and regiments consisted of
all whites. But, we have found an exception to this in Barkley Stagner, whose
tombstone rests in the Hatboro
Baptist Church
Cemetery.
Barkley
Stagner was a man of color who fought during the Civil War in the all white 8th
Pa. Vol. Cavalry Reg. He must have been a man of great courage and devotion to
his country since he enlisted in 1861 at the outset of the war. Stagner also
must have been well thought of as a man because the issue of color seems to
have been ignored by the 8th.
Barkley
Stagner was a farmer, born in Warminster, Bucks County.
From his military records, we found that he was six feet one inch tall and had
blue eyes with dark hair and complexion. In the 1850 U.S. Census, he is listed
as Black. From this description, we believe he was of mixed parentage or had an
ancestor who was white.
He enlisted in
the army on September 24, 1861 in Philadelphia
for 3 years. Barkley was then 26 years old and became a Corporal in Company M a
short time later. During the next 3 years, he rose in rank to become a
Sergeant. After his three years were up, he enlisted for another three years as
a veteran, in Bealton Virginia, on December 31, 1863. After he re-enlisted, he
was again a Private and transferred to Company C, 8th Pa. Vol. Cavalry and soon
became a Corporal again.
Corporal
Barkley Stagner died in 2nd Cavalry
Division Hospital
on December 3, 1865. The cause of death listed on his death certificate was
Congestion of the Brain, which was more apt to be a stroke. His body was
returned north and interred in the Hatboro
Baptist Church
Cemetery where his
tombstone is his only memorial.
Barkley
Stagner was a courageous man who was willing to fight for his country during a
time when practically all Union regiments were white. He was a brave soldier
who died while in service to his country during a war to preserve the Union and gain freedom for those in bondage. Because of
his commitment to his country, a new tombstone will soon be ordered and installed
on the grave of Barkley Stagner, in recognition of that service.
DANIEL MORGAN
French and Indian War
Jessie
Anderson
The reader will remember from the
last issue of young Daniel Morgan’s early years, traveling in rear of Col.
Dunbar’s division of General Edward Braddock’s British army encountering
Indians disastrously on the way to attack the French and Indians at Fort Duquesne;
and farming, wagoner, and militia duties around his Ohio home. Then, after the Boston Tea Party,
he trooped off again with ten western frontier companies of sharpshooter
volunteers to join Washington’s army in Cambridge, under General Arnold’s
command, to fight the British in Canada.
Quebec
With little knowledge of what lay
ahead, they began crossing the St. Lawrence in 30 canoes they gathered with
help of friendly Indians. Arnold
landed at the same cove where General James Wolfe had gone ashore 16 years
earlier to engage in battle with French General Montcalm.
Morgan was in favor of attacking Quebec immediately, even
though they had been seen, but others wanted to delay. They did delay for a
time and then directed the troops up the bluff to the Plains
of Abraham. They met with only minor resistance at a large house
there. They gathered the army and hurried to the walls of the city. People were
crowding at the ramparts exchanging insults with the disheveled band of
soldiers.
There was an angry exchange
between Morgan and Arnold over the conditions and lack of food for the men.
Soon Schuyler’s army, led by General Richard Montgomery, arrived bringing
clothes and ammunition. His army was 975 strong.
Governor Guy Carlton was in the
city with 1,800 men and plenty of food.
Montgomery
had no choice but to attack. Plans were made for a battle on the first stormy
night. Montgomery attacked the south, Arnold the north. On Dec.
30, a snowstorm started, and Montgomery
charged toward a blockhouse between the cliff and the St. Lawrence. Four
cannons were fired at the oncoming Americans, killing Montgomery and six
others. Lieutenant Donald Campbell, second in command, ordered a retreat.
Arnold’s
men set out through ice and deep snow to the north. Sentries spotted them, but
Morgan and Arnold raced to the front and entered the town, racing through the
streets. Then Arnold
fell as a musket ball hit his leg. Morgan had to take the lead, but was not
given command. He placed a ladder against the wall and climbed up. A ball tore
through his hat and he fell, but got up and climbed again, followed by
riflemen. The redcoats retreated. He entered the Sault au Matelote, meeting
French Canadian Militia, who threw down their arms. He wanted to continue, but
other American officers overruled him. Morgan waited for Montgomery, unaware that he had been killed.
Carlton,
knowing that Montgomery was no longer a threat,
ordered troops to advance on Arnold
from the rear. Morgan tried valiantly to lead the soldiers, but the enemy had
reinforced, and his weapons were wet. Finally, as Arnold’s men agreed to surrender, he saw a
priest in the crowd and handed him his sword.
Later, Morgan would learn of Montgomery’s death and Campbell’s withdrawal. Although the American
assault failed, it was not the fault of Daniel Morgan.
Outside the city, the wounded Arnold re-assembled his forces and took command of Montgomery’s division.
They spent a miserable cold winter on the Plains of
Abraham.
The British treated their
prisoners fairly well and fed them. They were housed in a monastery and a
seminary. Only 25 of the Frederick County riflemen ever returned to Virginia. The British officers respected
Morgan and offered him a colonelcy in His Majesty’s army. In August, the
prisoners sailed on British transports to Staten Island.
On Sept. 24, Howe turned them over to American authorities. Morgan returned to Frederick County after an absence of 15 months and
found his wife and daughters in good health.
Saratoga
Washington
heard about Daniel Morgan’s excellent service and asked John Hancock to
recommend him for a command. Later that year, a courier delivered him a commission
as a colonel in the 11th Virginia.
In January 1777, he set to work and recruited 180 men by the end of March. They
proceeded to Washington’s camp at Morristown, N.J.,
where the army suffered from insufficient clothing, disease and meager food.
Washington
gave Morgan command of a specially created corps of light infantry. They
consisted of 500 picked men outfitted in hunting shirts and leggings. He was
sent all over New Jersey
to harass the British, report their location, and determine the direction of
movement. Washington did not know General
Howe’s whereabouts and since Morgan ended up in Trenton,
there is a good possibility that he saw Washington
at the Moland House on the York
Road.
On August 17, Morgan received a
letter sending him to Peekskill, N.Y. and on to Albany.
The Northern American Army was trying to slow the southward drive of General
Burgoyne’s army toward Albany.
He wanted to control the Hudson River and cut New England
off from the rest of the colonies. Washington
persuaded Congress to transfer Arnold
to the Northern Army and, reluctantly, also sent Morgan. He hoped the presence
of riflemen would cause desertions among the Indians in Burgoyne’s army. He
encouraged this information to be spread as far as possible.
Morgan and the riflemen arrived
about August 30th and dined with Major General Horatio Gates, the new head of
the Northern Army, who was also his neighbor from Virginia. The Northern Army soon had 7,000
men due to local militia units joining. They are credited with delaying
Burgoyne’s progress.
Gates marched north to Bemis Heights
to await Burgoyne’s attack. It was a wooded and uneven area, perfect for the
frontier riflemen. Morgan reconnoitered Burgoyne’s location and was prepared.
On the morning of the 19th, Burgoyne’s army was approaching in three columns.
Morgan’s corps was to engage them in a heavily wooded area to the north and Arnold to direct the left
wing. One of the detachments, led by Major Jacob Morris, proceeded too rapidly
and encountered Burgoyne at Freeman’s Farm, where some fighting started. Morgan
was very angry to find that he was out of contact with these men, and used his
turkey call, disclosing his location, whereupon they returned.
The Freeman’s Farm battle started
about 1 p.m., Sept. 19, 1777. The Americans were in deep foliage and opened
fire; then the British made a bayonet charge. The riflemen climbed into the
trees and fired at the gunners. The battle went back and forth, with the
British suffering heavier casualties. Morgan’s troops brought down many
officers.
Burgoyne’s army had other
problems; the food supply was very low, men’s uniforms were torn and the
weather was turning cold. His troops were also very dispirited by the riflemen
and the patriot militia.
After day one of the battle, there
was a disagreement between Gates and Arnold that grew very heated. After that, Arnold was given no
assignments. The cause of this is not known.
On Oct. 7, Burgoyne moved his
army south of Freeman’s Farm, to an area surrounded by trees. Morgan was to attack
the right flank and General Enoch Poor’s division, the left. The assault began
about 2 p.m. Before long, Poor’s men captured a British cannon, turned it
around, and the grenadiers returned to the main army. Meanwhile, Morgan was
leading a charge to the left, and Learned’s brigade headed toward the Germans.
With him, was Arnold, who had decamped without orders. General Fraser was
riding a horse back and forth to encourage his troops, and Morgan ordered
rifleman, Timothy Murphy, to shoot the Scottish General. From high in a tree,
he fired three shots, mortally wounding him. Then the British fell back.
Fighting continued with Arnold leading two
brigades at the British
Center. Later, Arnold was wounded in the
leg. He displayed much bravery. The Americans caused 600 British casualties
with only 150 of their own. Burgoyne retreated northward, was surrounded and
laid down his arms at Saratoga
on Oct. 17.
THE MILLBROOK SOCIETY AT TWENTY
OUR HOPES FOR THE FUTURE
David
T. Shannon
The preceding three parts of this
series on Millbrook’s past told of how we began as a Society and grew into what
we have become today. In this last segment of “The Millbrook Society at
Twenty”, we look to the future.
Evaluation of programs and the
determination of what works and what does not is the key to our continued
success. For Millbrook to continue to prosper, the Society must be willing to
improve on our strong points and avoid projects and programs which run contrary
to our mission. Thus far, in our twenty-year history, we have done just that,
and you the membership have been a great help in this.
So just what are our strong
points? Our journal, Grist, is without a doubt, the most enjoyed part of Millbrook
membership. We constantly hear from members of how much they enjoy it and look
forward to receiving a copy. Millbrook’s historical; archeology; genealogical;
preservation; interpretive; and student intern programs are areas that receive
high marks from you, the membership. In short, this tells the Society
leadership we are doing just what we set out to do twenty years ago; teach,
protect and share our history.
What can be done to improve these
strong points for the future? The Grist needs more authors and staff.
If our journal is to keep up its high standards, we must have new sources of
material and fresh ideas. All of the student interns are encouraged to write
articles for the Grist as part of
their program. But you, the member, can help by sharing information on
historical topics. The Grist is our most visible asset as a
teaching tool. It gets The Millbrook
Society’s message out to others by sharing history’s story.
Our Web Page is an adjunct to the
Grist.
Millbrook needs people to help with this as well. Thousands of people visit our
site and it should be! Not only because of what it tells about Millbrook, but
because it keeps members up to date on things not always covered in the Grist.
Things have changed in twenty years. Now a Web Page is a must, if we want to
grow.
As for our other programs, they
are people driven. Without the staffing to run them, there are no programs! The
Millbrook Society needs more of its younger adults to take on an active role
for the future. An aging staff makes keeping all programming in operation a
challenge. Many of the current staff in Millbrook began as young historians
with a desire to share history through education. Now they have grown old in
service to that which they helped create. If Millbrook is to grow, we need
young people to take on a more active role. This is why our Student
Intern Program is so vital to the Society’s future. The leadership of
the future is our youth not just in Millbrook but also as a nation. What every
student of history knows is we shall all become part of it. Our yesterdays are
but prologue to our present, and our present prologue to our future.
Our hope for the future of
Millbrook is that we continue to preserve, protect and educate. That we do so
by growing our membership, convince more of our members to become history
activists involved in the Society, and continue to think outside the box toward
innovative programming that excites the imagination. But our most fervent hope
is to one day have our own facility where we can have ample room for our
museum, archives, classrooms, laboratory space, and lecture hall; and the
endowment to sustain us as we move “FORWARD INTO THE PAST.”
Yes, we have come a long way
since the first meeting in Mrs. Charles Harper Smith’s kitchen over twenty
years ago. We can and will improve on our past as a Society. There is always
room for improvement. So we now enter into our future, for the best is yet to
be.
The One-eyed Giant of Philadelphia
(Part 2)
Ed
Price
The
Business of Shipping
Stephen Girard found a greater potential
for profit when he owned the ships as well as the cargoes, but there was also a
greater chance for loss due to storms, pirates and acts of war. While he
suffered many losses, he was careful about overextending his finances. He
bought and sold ships at a profit as well as their cargoes. Girard first built
his solvency and then his fortune, step by step. During the revolution, he sent
some of his ships out as privateers along the Atlantic coast. With guns mounted
on their decks, they were more like fighting ships than cargo vessels. Any ship
flying the British flag was fair game. Ships and cargoes would be taken with
the approval of an admiralty court. One of the ships taken by Girard’s
privateers was used to transport some of Washington’s
troops to Yorktown while awaiting a court
decision. Girard’s ships also raided the Chesapeake Bay
area and once captured slaves from Tories that the court required him to return
to their owners.
As the war came to an end, the
pent up demand for goods due to shortages would make the business of shipping
more profitable. In 1783, Girard’s brother, John, brought a ship up from
St-Dominique to join him in Philadelphia.
He brought with him a slave named Hannah and their daughter, Rosette. In those
days, Rosette was considered a slave as well. John then took a wife in Philadelphia and returned
to St-Dominique, leaving Hannah behind with his brother. Hannah would stay with
Stephen for the rest of his life, being at his bedside when he died and being
the first one mentioned in his will. Rosette not only resembled he father, but
also resembled Stephen, as well. This created some problems for Stephen as
people assumed that she was his daughter. Stephen’s wife, Mary, thought the
situation had become intolerable, and so Stephen freed Rosette and sent her to
live with her father.
Girard, with his extraordinary
industry and talent, his vigor and dedication to detail, along with his
beginning each work day at the crack of dawn, brought him ahead of his
competitors. Stephen Simpson, a long-time employee of Girard, made these
observations: “He could not, at first, find it so easy to make money as people
sometimes imagine. Whatever he did, he performed well, and would not slight
anything that he undertook.”
A
Personal Tragedy
In early 1785, Girard’s wife Mary
went insane. She would have spells of irrational behavior with sudden mood
swings followed by tantrums. The doctors pronounced her incurably insane. She
was only 26 years of age, and they had only been married eight years. All their
hopes and all their dreams came crashing down. Rather than have Mary
hospitalized, he sent her to the home that they still owned in Mount Holly, New
Jersey. She also was sent to stay for a while at the
“Cloisters” in Lancaster
County. After a couple of
years, Girard had to accept the fact that Mary was now only his legal wife, and
he decided to take a mistress. Eighteen year-old Sally Bickham became his
live-in housekeeper and mistress. Being a mistress to a man of substance, in
the eighteenth century, was an honorable occupation. Sarah became known as
Sally and was quite beautiful, though only half Girard’s age of thirty-six.
Sally became Girard’s surrogate wife.
The
United States Government
Comes to Philadelphia
In December 1790, with the new
Constitution ratified, the government moved to Philadelphia. Stephen Girard and Sally lived
seven blocks away from Congress Hall and six blocks away from the home of
George and Martha Washington, on Water
Street. While Girard’s shipping business had
started out trading mostly with the West Indies, starting in 1787, he had
inaugurated trade with China,
backed by sixteen other Philadelphia
investors. It was in 1787 that Girard last captained a ship. He had sailed one
of his ships, the Deux Amis (Two Friends), to Marseilles. It would have been more logical
for Girard to have gone to Bordeaux
and visit with his family, but he still owed debts there since 1774. That was
the last time he set foot on his homeland. He had become an American. After
returning home to Philadelphia,
he was never more than forty miles away for the remainder of his life. When his
father Pierre died in 1790, most of his
inheritance went to pay Stephen’s debts in Bordeaux leaving less than $100. After that,
Girard’s credit record was excellent and he paid his bills promptly, expecting
others to do the same. He generated profits for himself and others as well.
This prompted many to join him in business ventures. His network of trade
routes soon encompassed the globe. Sally’s nine year-old brother, Martin, came
to live in the Girard home. Mary was placed under institutional care at Pennsylvania Hospital. She was said to be mentally
“in total blindness”. Where she was kept is now known as the East wing of the
Pine building. Girard’s home was only a mile away.
Although the first steamboat
started service on the Delaware River between Philadelphia
and Trenton in
1790, Girard’s ships were sail powered until seven years after his death in
1831. Steamboats had a major impact on the development of many states during
Girard’s lifetime, including Pennsylvania and Louisiana,
where he had also acquired land.
The Constitution nationalized the
trade regulations of the nation. This made it easier to conduct trade between
and among the states as well as with foreign countries. The French Revolution
had knocked world trade into a cocked hat. Girard knew that if he were going to
be successful in world commerce, he would have to confront and overcome
formidable obstacles. He could not wait for normal times.
Catastrophe
in the Capital
In 1793, another Yellow Fever
epidemic came to Philadelphia.
When it began, it is estimated that forty-eight thousand people inhabited the
area. It is estimated that at least seventeen thousand people evacuated the city.
Of those that remained, there were more than five thousand deaths. If you
contracted the disease, and lasted for ten days, you would usually survive.
During that time, the doctor’s treatment might kill you. Many doctors warned
against the treatment of Doctor Benjamin Rush. Alexander Hamilton claimed that
he survived because he avoided Doctor Rush and his treatment. He and his wife
Eliza left the city after their recovery. Prominent government officials and
the wealthy made up most of those who evacuated as the disease began to spread.
Girard’s home and business were located in the heart of the affected area. He
and Sally stayed on and devoted all of their energies to administer to the sick
and dying. The city became isolated from the rest of the country, even though
it was the Capital of the Nation. Mayor Clarkson of the city put out a call for
volunteers to help the city in its dire need. Girard was one of only ten who
answered the call on September 12. Two of these volunteers died of the disease,
but these ten soon inspired another twelve to join. Of these twelve, two also
died of the disease.
On September 15th, Girard
volunteered to take charge of Bush Hill, a makeshift hospital where Yellow
Fever victims would go to die. Girard’s colleagues on the committee were
stunned. When his adopted city needed him, he was there. Bush Hill was built,
about 1740, as the home of Andrew Hamilton, the lawyer who was victorious in
the defense of John Zenger, whose acquittal helped to establish Freedom of the
Press in the British Empire. Girard took full
charge of the hospital. He and another volunteer, Peter Helm, set about
cleaning the place and renovating the buildings on the estate to provide proper
care of the patients. One of Girard’s first actions was to fire the four
doctors that had been paid by the city, but provided little service to the
sick. He then hired two reliable replacements. His unpaid service led many to
accept paid positions to work at Bush Hill. He worked as hard as any of the
hired staff. Although he seemed to be unafraid of Yellow Fever himself, he was
tolerant of those who were afraid. By December, the epidemic had subsided and
the number of patients at Bush Hill had dropped from over two hundred to
seventy. The President had returned to Germantown
on the first of November, but did not return to the city until December. Most
of Congress returned in that month as well. By the end of the year, the United States
had a government again. Honored for his services, with 16 other citizens at the
end of the epidemic, Girard’s name was now known by everyone.
After 1793, no one could have any
doubts about Girard’s courage. Defiantly, audaciously, and unselfishly serving
others, he had looked death in the eye.
Trouble
on the High Seas
The number one port in the nation
opened after the 1793 epidemic ended, but outside of Delaware
Bay, the passenger and merchant ships were easy pickings for the
pirates and privateers. The United
States got no respect, as it no longer had a
navy. With a war raging between Great Britain
and France, Washington proclaimed America’s neutrality. This made
American shipping the target of both the British and the French. In early 1794,
Girard owned five ships. The British seized two of his ships and the French
seized three. The cargoes of all five ships had been confiscated. Added to this
problem were the pirates of the Caribbean and the Barbary
pirates. The United States
paid extortion payments to the Barbary
States over a ten-year period that amounted to over
ten million dollars. These funds were used to obtain freedom of American
citizens held by the pirates and to buy protection from further attacks.
Girard was upset with President
Washington and Congress for not building warships to protect America’s
merchant vessels from pirates. The U. S. Government seemed unconcerned about
the problem. Girard chaired a meeting of merchants and ship owners to make
proposals to the government urging the government to take action. A week later,
he headed a rally of six thousand people in Independence Square that presented
demands to the President and Congress to change our foreign policy. Accusations
against Great Britain
were read at the rally. This resulted in the President assigning John Jay as
envoy to the British government and the Congress enacting an embargo on
shipping from all United States
ports in an effort to hurt the economy of Great Britain. Congress also
appropriated funds to build warships and strengthen the coastal defenses.
Building warships required men to
join the new Navy. There would be no rush to join the U. S. Navy. In 1801, the
Navy was used to defeat the Barbary pirates,
making them no longer a menace to American shipping. In 1812, Fort McHenry
(built in 1794) held off the British Navy on the approaches to Baltimore Harbor. Although James Madison proposed
bills in Congress based on ideas from Girard and other critics of our foreign
policies, it was nearly impossible to get them through the House, Senate, and
President. Other Congressmen tried to pass bills also, but with little success.
John Jay ended up being
conciliatory in negotiations with the British instead of exerting pressure on
them to put an end to their aggressions on the western frontier and the high
seas. The resulting Treaty was accepted by the President and presented to the
Senate for their advice and consent. Only one clause was rejected, and the
remainder barely passed by a two-thirds majority. It was decided to keep the
Treaty secret. At this point, a new process, which is still in use today, was
used. The Treaty was leaked to the press, and the Aurora printed a substantially accurate
account of the Treaty’s main provisions. It was then published in newspapers
all over the country in the ensuing weeks.
A large number of Americans
believed that John Jay had given away the store. Burning Jay in effigy became a
popular pastime. A crowd threw stones at Alexander Hamilton when he tried to
defend John Jay and his Treaty. The Treaty established for Great Britain
what is known today as “most-favored-nation” status. Girard saw the Treaty as a
victory for Great Britain.
He was appalled, as were other merchants and ship owners. A rally denounced the
Jay Treaty on July 23, 1795. Two days later, another rally presented a lengthy
and perceptive critique of the Jay Treaty. A second war with Great Britain
was postponed but not averted by the Jay Treaty. War did come, but not until
1812. It would be President Madison’s war, but financially speaking, it would
also be Stephen Girard’s war.
This
story was extracted from the book “Stephen Girard-The Life and Times of America’s First
Tycoon”, by George Wilson, published in 1995.
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